whereas dog as a basic category is a species, bird or fish are at a higher level, etc. widely in areas such as colour cognition (Another aspect in which Prototype Theory departs from traditional Aristotelian categorization is that there do not appear to be The other notion related to prototypes is that of a Rosch (1978) defines the basic level as that level that has the highest degree of cue validity. More central members of a category are "between" the peripheral members. According to prototype theory, instances of a natural concept are defined by their resemblance to a prototype (2) that is a best or most typical example of the concept, sharing the maximum number of features (1) or attributes with other instances and a minimum number with instances of other concepts. The purpose of the present empirical research paper is to investigate how Prototype Theory works in defining categories in real life. Introduction.

in determining which of the constituent categories will contribute which feature?

原型理论（prototype theory）在认知科学中，是一种分级归类的模式。在这种模式中，在同一个范畴中，某些项目会比其他项目更为核心。例如，当我们想到家具这个概念的时候，椅子会比起板凳更常常被提 … PROTOTYPE THEORY and DEFINITIONS: THE ROLE OF BASIC FACTORS, LEARNT KNOWLEDGE and CULTURE – a small-scale empirical study – 1. [dog], [bird], [fish], are full of informational content and can easily be categorised in terms of Clearly semantic models based on attribute-value pairs fail to identify privileged levels in the hierarchy. Rosch presented further evidence that some members of a category are more privileged than others in these experiments: Prototype prototype of a predicate is an object held to be very typical of the kind of object which can be referred to by an expression containing the predicate prototype- most typical member of a category e.g. Subsequent to Rosch's work, prototype effects have been investigated (ed): Topics in Cognitive Linguistics. In situations involving adjectives (e.g. The purpose of the present empirical research paper is to investigate how Prototype Theory works in defining categories in real life. While one may differ from this list in terms of cultural specifics, the point is that such a graded categorization is likely to be present in all cultures.

In the example of a "pet bird" [Hampton 97], 原型理论是在 1970 年代，由Eleanor Rosch 与其他学者们所建立的，原型理论是一种彻底扬弃传统原型一词最初用法是在Eleanor Rosch的 "自然范畴" (1973)中，被定义为一个刺激物，这个刺激物在形成一个范畴的过程中，扮演一个特别重要的地位，因为它是与其他范畴相关的第一个刺激物。在后续的研究中，她进一步重新定义“原型”为在范畴当中，最为中心的项目。另一个与原型效应相关的概念，是认知归类中的基本层次。 因此，当人们被问到“你坐在什么上面？”时，大多数的受测者都会说“椅子”而不会说一个次级层次范畴如用餐椅，或是一个上层范畴，如家俱。而在上级层次，概念的相似性难以被指出。一张椅子很容易画，但画出“家俱”会难的多。Rosch (1978) 将基本层次定义为拥有最高程度有效线索的层次。因此，一范畴如[动物]也许有其原型项目，但是不会有认知上的视觉表征。另一方面，[动物]下的基本范畴, 即[狗]、[鸟]、[鱼]，都充满了资讯内容而且在完形和语义特征上容易被归类。显然，基于“属性-值”偶对的语义模型，无法指出范畴层级中的优先权层次。在功能上认为，基本层次范畴是将世界分解为最大限度数量的资讯性范畴。因此，基本层次范畴是然而，基本层次概念仍有无法解决的难题。 例如，作为一个基本范畴的“狗”是一个生物学上的物种，但是“鸟”或“鱼”却是一个更高阶层的“属”。同样地，频率这个概念与基本层次是非常密切的，但是却很难明确地指出。更多的难题，出现在应用原型效应到名词以外的词汇上。例如，动词，似乎无视于一个明显的原型：[跑]很难找到中心项目。例如“Game”的进行过程。我指的是桌上游戏、卡片游戏、球类运动、奥林匹克运动、等等。这些之间的共通点是什么？ 不要说，“他们彼此间一定有一些共同的东西，要不然他们就不会都被称作Game”-- 检视这些成员，看看是否有任何共 通点。你会发现没有什么一致性的共通点，但彼此间都有一些相似性、关系。重申一次：不要想，用看的！看这些桌上游 戏中各自的关系。现在转到卡片游戏；你能找到许多与第一组相应的特征，但是也有许多特征不复存在。当我们转到另一 个球类运动，有许多共同点被保留下来，但更多是不一样的。难道只是因为他们都是“有趣的”？比较国际象棋与井字游戏。 或是两种游戏都是有输有赢，或是都是玩家间的竞争？有耐心的想想。球类比赛都有赢家与输家；但一个小孩对着墙丢球 接球，这种特征就不存在了。看看技巧域运气的成分；国际象棋技巧与网球技巧间的差别。再想想 ring-a-ring-a-roses 这类的游戏；有一种要素是娱乐，但是有多少特征都消失了呢！我们可以用同样的方式研究许多其他的Game的种类；而我 们将会了解相似性如何的出现又消失。这个检测的结果是：我们看到了一个复杂网络的重叠和相似性纵横交错：有时整体 有相似性，有时只有细节有相似性。最近，Peter Gärdenfors (概念空间 Conceptual Spaces, MIT Press 2000) 以多维特征空间建立了一个原型效应的可能解释，其中范畴是以概念距离来定义的。 范畴中心的成员是被外围成员围绕在中间的。他假定，在概念空间中凸显的最为自然的范畴，当 x 与 y 是一范畴的元素，且 z 在 x 与 y 之间，那么 z 更属于这个范畴。然而，在上述Game的概念中，有一个或数个原型？近来从色彩研究获得的语言学资料，似乎表明了范畴能够拥有一个以上的核心元素 - 如， Tsonga人 的色彩词汇 rihlaza 指的是一种蓝绿色，但是似乎有两个原型，一个核心蓝，与一个核心绿。因此，一个范畴可能会有多个不连续的原型，他们可能构成数个而非一个凸显集合。在我们周围，我们发现有一些像是高的人或小的象这些合并了一个或多个范畴的实例。 这对外延语义来说，会是一个问题。因为当中字的语义，如红会被定义为一组拥有此属性的物件集合。显然，当我们说“一只小老鼠与一只小象”时，当中的小这个字的语义不会是一样的。这类型的合并对于原型理论构成了一个次要的问题。在涉及形容词的状况下(如，高)，问题是[高]的原型应该是六呎高的长人，或是四百呎的摩天大楼[Dirven and Taylor 1988]？ 解决方法是根据物件被修改的状况，将原型的概念情境化。更彻底的外延，如红酒或红发实在都不能在原型上说是红色的，但是能说是从原型上的酒或头发，在颜色上往红色偏移的结果。其他的问题 - 如，决定哪些成分范畴提供了哪些特征？例如“宠物鸟(pet bird)”[Hampton 97]，宠物(pet)提供了定居的成分(在笼中而非野外)， 而鸟提供了表面类型(羽毛而不是毛)。Dirven, R. & Taylor, J. R. (1988): "The conceptualisation of vertical Space in English: The Case of Tall", in: Rudzka-Ostyn, B.
The prototype theory has more of a clustering approach with the central idea/theory serving as a prototype; radially affiliated concepts can closely or loosely resemble the prototype. Prototype Theory is a model of graded categorization in Cognitive Science, where all members of a category do not have equal status.For example, chair is more prototypical of the concept furniture, than, say, lamp. Thus, a category like [animal] may have a prototypical member, but no cognitive visual representation. Amsterdam.Lakoff, G. (1987): Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind, London. Functionally, it is thought that basic level categories are a decomposition of the world into maximally However, the notion of Basic Level is problematic, e.g. Thus, prototype theory assumes that a concept is determined by a set of characteristic rather than defining features, the human mind has a privileged prototype for each concept, and typicality of a concrete item is determined by its similarity with the prototype (Rosch, 1973, 1978, 1983). He postulates that most However, In the notion of game above, is there a single prototype or several? Set Up: People & Place Prototyping is a process in itself, and it is really specific to the idea or concept that is prototyped. Introduction. theory. Recent linguistic data from colour studies seem to indicate that categories may have more than one focal element - e.g. Introduction The purpose of the present empirical research paper is to investigate how Prototype Theory works in defining categories in real life. The notion of prototypes is related to the (later) Recently, Peter Gardenfors (Conceptual Spaces, MIT Press 2000) has elaborated a possible implementation to prototype theory in terms of multi-dimensional feature spaces, where a category is defined in terms of a conceptual distance. basic categories in [animal], i.e. Other problems remain - e.g. The theory was introduced by Rosch (1975) in order to explain how semantic […] This concept addressed an inherent problem within classical theory: often … prototype of the predicate man:man of medium height and average built, btw. 30 and 50 years old with PROTOTYPE THEORY and DEFINITIONS: THE ROLE OF BASIC FACTORS, LEARNT KNOWLEDGE and CULTURE – a small-scale empirical study – 1. Other problems arise when the notion of a prototype is applied to lexical categories other than the noun. the All around us, we find instances where objects like These combinations pose a lesser problem in terms of prototype Similarly, the notion of frequency is very closely tied to the basic level, but is hard to pinpoint. A prototype is a practical and tested mini-version of what later could become a pilot project that can be shared and eventually scaled.

Verbs, for example, seem to defy a clear prototype: [to run] is hard to split up in more or less central members.
On the other hand, PROTOTYPE THEORY and DEFINITIONS: THE ROLE OF BASIC FACTORS, LEARNT KNOWLEDGE and CULTURE – a small-scale empirical study – 1.


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